Depression


OVERVIEW

Late-life depression (LLD) is classified as a geriatric syndrome and occurs in people 60 years of age and older. It interferes with a person’s ability to function, adversely impacts quality of life, increases risk of morbidity and mortality (including suicide, all-cause mortality, and cardiovascular mortality), and increases use of healthcare services (Goldin, 2021; Wei et al., 2019). It is not a normal part of aging. Despite associated negative outcomes, depression in all adults, especially in adults older than 65 years, continues to be underrecognized, misdiagnosed, and subsequently undertreated (Sudhir Kumar et al., 2020). Nurses in all healthcare settings are pivotal to the early recognition of depression and the facilitation of older patients’ access to mental healthcare. 

 

BACKGROUND

A. Depression—both major and minor depressive disorders—is highly prevalent in medically ill, functionally impaired, and institutionalized older adults.

B. Depression is not a natural part of aging or a normal reaction to acute illness hospitalization. (Somatic symptoms, also seen in many physical illnesses, are frequently associated with A and B; therefore, the full range of depressive symptoms should be assessed.)

C. Consequences of depression include amplification of pain and disability, delayed recovery from illness and surgery, worsening of drug side effects, excess use of health services, cognitive impairment, poor nutrition, and increased suicide- and nonsuicide-related death.

D. Depression (major and minor) tends to be long-lasting and recurrent. Therefore, comprehensive and timely approaches are necessary.

E. Somatic symptoms may be more prominent than depressed mood in LLD.

F. Mixed depression and anxiety features may be evident among many older adults.

G. Recognition of depression is hindered by the coexistence of physical illness, cognitive decline, and social and economic problems common in late life. Early recognition, intervention, and referral by nurses can reduce the negative effects of depression.

ASSESSMENT PARAMETERS

A. Identify the risk factors/high-risk groups (APA, 2013; Maier et al., 2021; Melrose, 2018; Smith et al., 2015).

  1. Biological contributors
    • Vascular disease (MI, CAD, CVA)
    • General health (new medical illness, pain, insomnia, prior depression, history of suicide attempt, concomitant substance abuse)
    • Dementia (vascular and Alzheimer disease)
    • Other chronic or disabling medical conditions (diabetes, Parkinson disease, arthritis, low vision, COPD)
  2. Psychosocial contributors
    • Personality attributes (personality disorder, low self-efficacy)
    • Life stressors (trauma, low income, impaired function, disability)
    • Social stressors (bereavement, loneliness, impaired social support, caregiving)

B. Screen all at-risk groups using a standardized depression screening tool and document the score.

  1. The GDS-SF is recommended for its brevity, validity, and extensive use with medically ill older adults, and inclusion of few somatic items that may be confounded with physical illness.
  2. The PHQ-9 and PHQ-2 are recommended for their brevity, validity with older as well as younger adults, and availability in hospital and primary care settings.

C. Perform a focused depression assessment on all at-risk groups and document the results. Note the number of symptoms, onset, frequency/patterns, duration (especially 2 weeks), and change from normal mood, behavior, and functioning.

  1. Depressive symptoms
  2. Depressed or irritable mood, frequent crying
  3. Loss of interest or pleasure (in family, friends, hobbies, sex)
  4. Weight loss or gain (especially loss)
  5. Sleep disturbance (especially insomnia)
  6. Fatigue/loss of energy
  7. Psychomotor slowing/agitation
  8. Diminished concentration
  9. Feelings of worthlessness/guilt
  10. Suicidal thoughts or attempts, hopelessness
  11. Psychosis (e.g., delusional/paranoid thoughts, hallucinations)
  12. History of depression, current substance abuse (especially alcohol), previous coping style
  13. Recent losses or crises (e.g., death of spouse, friend, pet; retirement; anniversary dates; move to another residence, nursing home); change in physical health status, relationships, roles

D. Obtain/review medical history and physical/neurological examination.

E. Assess for depressogenic medications (e.g., steroids, narcotics, sedative/hypnotics, benzodiazepines, antihypertensive, H2 antagonists, beta-blockers, antipsychotics, immunosuppressive, cytotoxic agents).

F. Assess for related systemic and metabolic processes (e.g., infection, anemia, hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism, hyponatremia, hypercalcemia, hypoglycemia, congestive heart failure, kidney failure).

G. Assess for cognitive dysfunction.

H. Assess level of functional disability and quality of life.

CARE PARAMETERS

Based on guidelines and reviews (APA, 2010; Melrose, 2018; Pinquart et al., 2006):

A. For severe depression (GDS-SF score of 11 or greater, five to nine depressive symptoms [must include depressed mood or loss of pleasure] plus other positive responses on individualized assessment [especially suicidal thoughts or psychosis and comorbid substance abuse]), refer for psychiatric evaluation. Treatment options may include medication or cognitive behavioral, interpersonal, or brief psychodynamic psychotherapy/counseling (individual, group, family); hospitalization; or ECT.

B. For less severe depression (GDS-SF score 6 or greater, less than five depressive symptoms, plus other positive responses on individualized assessment), refer to mental health services for psychotherapy/counseling (see previous types), especially for specific issues identified in individualized assessment, and to determine whether medication therapy may be warranted. Consider resources such as psychiatric liaison nurses, geropsychiatric advanced practice nurses, social workers, psychologists, and other community and institution-specific mental health services. If suicidal thoughts, psychosis, or comorbid substance abuse is present, a referral for a comprehensive psychiatric evaluation should always be made.

C. For all levels of depression, develop an individualized plan integrating the following nursing interventions:

  1. Institute safety precautions for suicide risk as per institutional policy (in outpatient settings, ensure continuous surveillance of the patient while obtaining an emergency psychiatric evaluation and disposition).
  2. Remove or control etiological agents.
    1. Avoid/remove/change depressogenic medications.
    2. Correct/treat metabolic/systemic disturbances.
  3. Monitor and promote symptom management of depression and anxiety (e.g., supporting individuals to improve nutrition, elimination, sleep/rest patterns, physical comfort [especially pain control], mindfulness interventions, routine aerobic and strength exercise programs).
  4. Monitor and enhance physical function (e.g., structure regular exercise/activity; refer to physical, occupational, or recreational therapies); develop a daily activity schedule.
  5. Enhance social support and reduce isolation (e.g., identify/mobilize a support person(s) [e.g., family, confidant, friends, hospital resources, support groups]); ascertain need for spiritual support and contact appropriate clergy.
  6. Maximize autonomy/personal control/self-efficacy (e.g., include patient in active participation in making daily schedules, short-term goals).
  7. Identify and reinforce strengths and capabilities.
  8. Structure and encourage daily participation in relaxation therapies, pleasant activities (conduct a pleasant activity inventory), and music therapy.
  9. Monitor and document response to medication and other therapies; readminister depression screening tool.
  10. Provide practical assistance; assist with problem-solving.
  11. Provide emotional support (e.g., empathic, supportive listening, encourage expression of feelings, hope instillation), support adaptive coping, and encourage pleasant reminiscences.
  12. Provide information about the physical illness and treatment(s) and about depression (e.g., that depression is common, treatable, and not the person’s fault). Include attention to addressing potential fear and stigma associated with depression.
  13. Educate about the importance of adherence to prescribed treatment regimen for depression (especially medication) to prevent recurrence; educate about specific antidepressant side effects.
  14. Ensure mental health community link-up; consider collaborative care programs.

EVALUATION OF EXPECTED OUTCOMES

A. Patient

  1. Patient safety will be maintained.
  2. Patients with severe depression will be evaluated by psychiatric services.
  3. Patients will report a reduction of symptoms that are indicative of depression. A reduction in the GDS score will be evident, and suicidal thoughts or psychosis will resolve.
  4. Patient’s daily functioning will improve.

B. Healthcare provider

  1. Document risk assessment, interventions initiated for depression, progress of patients with depressive symptoms, and referrals.
  2. Provide support and depression-specific education to patients and their families (and other caregivers) via written and verbal information on depression and its management, including how families or carers can support the person.
  3. Conduct medication review for potential drug–drug interactions.
  4. Evaluate physiological findings necessitating adjustment (e.g., liver and renal function).

C. Institution

  1. The number of patients identified with depression will increase.
  2. The number of in-hospital suicide attempts will not increase.
  3. The number of referrals to mental health services will increase.
  4. The number of referrals to psychiatric nursing home care services will increase.
  5. Staff will receive ongoing education on depression recognition, assessment, and interventions.
  6. Develop collaborative depression care management programs.

FOLLOW-UP TO MONITOR CONDITION

A. Continue to track prevalence and documentation of depression in at-risk groups.

B. Show evidence of transfer of information to postdischarge mental health service delivery system.

C. Educate caregivers to continue assessment and management strategies.

ABBREVIATIONS

APA                 American Psychiatric Association

CAD                coronary artery disease

COPD              chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

CVA                 cerebrovascular accident

ECT                  electroconvulsive therapy

GDS-SF            Geriatric Depression Scale-Short Form

LLD                  late-life depression

MI                    myocardial infarction

PHQ                 Patient Health Questionnaire

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Updated: January 2025

Boltz PhD, RN, GNP-BC, FGSA, FAAN, M., Capezuti, PhD, RN, FAAN, E.A., & Fulmer PhD, RN, FAAN, T. T. (2025). Evidence-Based Geriatric Nursing Protocols for Best Practice (7th ed.). Springer Publishing. Retrieved December 17, 2024, from https://www.springerpub.com/evidence-based-geriatric-nursing-protocols-for-best-practice-9780826152763.html#tableofcontents

Chapter 22, Sexson, K. (2025) Depression


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Opie, R. S., Itsiopoulos, C., Parletta, N., Sanchez-Villegas, A., Akbaraly, T. N., Ruusunen, A., & Jacka, F. N. (2017). Dietary recommendations for the prevention of depression. Nutritional Neuroscience,20(3), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1179/1476830515Y.0000000043.Evidence Level V.

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